Key challenges in forest restoration and adaptation in Spain

Understanding the barriers and opportunities involved is essential to ensure effective implementation. Drawing on the knowledge of over 60 national experts and applying the Delphi method, we (1) ranked 45 key political, social, economic, technical and environmental challenges limiting climate-adaptive forest restoration in Spain; (2) analyzed how demographic and professional factors influenced perceptions of these challenges; and (3) co-developed strategic recommendations to overcome them. Experts identified economic and political barriers such as short-term budgets, undervaluation of ecosystem services, perverse incentives, political short-termism, bureaucracy and policy fragmentation as the most limiting. Key solutions include the creation of independent restoration agencies with stable funding, legal and policy reforms, financial incentives for landowners (valuation of ecosystem services) and stronger private sector involvement.