Best Practice Knowledge Base
1.7 Seeding
Oak seedlings. Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany © Hernán Serrano-León
Seeding is a form of artificial regeneration that involves the direct application of seeds to reestablish vegetation and promote forest recovery. This method is particularly useful for large-scale projects or areas with difficult access, where planting individual seedlings may be impractical or too expensive. Seeding is cost-effective but may have lower initial success rates compared to planting seedlings, as germination depends on factors like soil quality, moisture, and protection from predators. However, in some ways it mimics natural regeneration processes and can result in resilient, site-adapted forests over time. For successful application, practitioners should consider local ecological conditions, seed availability, and potential legal or ecological restrictions on seed sources and site preparation techniques.
I. Guidelines
| Nº | Title | Author | Year | Focus Region | Language | Summary |
| 1 | Saat statt Pflanzung | AFZ Der Wald | 2020 | World | German | Introduction to sowing and basic considerations |
| 2 | Bergündung von Waldbeständen | FNR | 2022 | Europe | German | Basic considerations for sowing and indications for a few common species in Europe |
| 3 | Direktsaat im Wald: eine Option für die Waldverjüngung? | WSL | 2021 | US | German | Overview of sowing as an alternative for forest regeneration |
| 4 | Direct seeding: A forest regeneration alternative | Mississippi State University Extension | 2022 | US | English | Guidelines and main considerations for seeding |
| 5 | Forest Regeneration Methods: Natural Regeneration, Direct Seeding and Planting | University of Florida Extension | 2000 | US | English | Guidelines and main considerations for seeding |
| 6 | Creating new broadleaved woodland by direct seeding | Forestry Comission | 2004 | UK | English | Comprehensive guide for direct seeding |
| 7 | The tree grower's guide | The Tree Council | 2022 | UK | English | Main considerations for direct seeding of the main tree species in the UK |
II. Books or book chapters
| Nº | Title | Author | Chapter | Chapter author | Year | Focus region | Language | Summary |
| 1 | The practice of silviculture: Applied forest ecology | Ashton and Kelty | Nursery, planting and seeding techniques | - | 2017 | World | English | General considerations and guidelines for direct seeding, among other methods for artificial regeneration |
| 2 | Silviculture: Concepts and applications | Nyland | Regeneration from seed and direct seeding | - | 2016 | World | English | General considerations and guidelines for direct seeding |
| 3 | Waldbau auf Ökologischer Grundlage | Bartsch et al. | Verjüngung und Begründung von Waldbeständen: Saat | - | 2020 | Germany | German | General considerations and guidelines for direct seeding, in general and for some of the main European tree species |
| 4 | Restoring Forests and Trees for Sustainable Development: Policies, Practices, Impacts, and Ways Forward | Katila et al. | Advances in forest restoration management and technology | Stanturf et al. | 2024 | World | English | Compares different regeneration techniques from different practical perspectives, including seeding |
| 5 | Plantation silviculture in Europe | Savill et al. | Plantation establishment and restocking - Direct seeding | - | 1997 | Europe | English | General considerations, advantages and disadvantages of direct seeding |
III. Scientific articles
| Nº | Title | Author | Year | Focus region | Language | Type | Summary |
| 1 | Direct Seeding in Reforestation - A Field Performance Review | Grossnickle and Ivetic | 2017 | World | English | Conceptual review | Advantages, disadvantages, latest scientific findings, and methodologies of sowing are discussed |
| 2 | A Review of the Application of Aerial Seeding Technology in Restoration of Degraded Forests | Kiama et al. | 2023 | World | English | Conceptual review | Review of experiences in aerial seeding technology |
| 3 | Quantifying success share and plant density of direct seeding of Douglas fir using a hurdle negative binomial regression model | Von Lüpke and Sennhenn-Reulen | 2022 | Germany | English | Observational study | Assessment of the regeneration success and underlying factors of seeding for Douglas fir |
| 4 | Direct Seeding for Conifer Regeneration in the Pacific Northwest: A Past, Present, and Future of Operational Practices | Downer et al. | 2024 | US | English | Narative review | Reviews the history and outcomes of direct seeding experiments, focusing on conifers. It identifies practices and technologies that enhance success rates |
| 5 | Large-scale assessment of artificially coated seeds for forest regeneration across Sweden | Domesvik et al | 2022 | Sweden | English | Experiment | Reports the results of two years’ field performance of Scots pine seedlings under different sowing and seed processing techniques |
| 6 | The Direct Seeding of Temperate and Boreal Tree Species – A Review | Birkedal | 2006 | World | English | Conceptual review | Overview of seeding as an alternative regeneration method and practical recommendations for management |
| 7 | Is Direct Seeding a Biologically Viable Strategy for Restoring Forest Ecosystems? Evidences from a Meta-analysis | Ceccon et al. | 2015 | World | English | Systematic review | Systematic review on the effectiveness of seeding as an alternative regeneration method |
| 8 | Do seeding and seedling planting result in similar restored plant communities? | Butterfield and Musson | 2023 | US | English | Experiment | Examines the tradeoff between direct seeding and seedling planting for restoration |
| 9 | A review of the use of direct seeding and seedling plantings in restoration: what do we know and where should we go? | Palma and Laurance | 2015 | World | English | Narrative review | Compares the efficacy and costs of direct seeding versus seedling planting for ecosystem restoration |